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The
Causes of Corruption
Recently,
the International Olympic Committee (IOC), had to relieve
some of its officials of their posts because they had taken
bribes. And all the commissioners of the European Union (EU),
resigned because they, too, had been found to be corrupt beyond
acceptable limits. In the United States, Enron Corporation,
an energy giant and WorldCom, a telecommunication company,
were charged with fraud. The companies manipulated their balanced
sheets, profit and loss account and tax liabilities. Enrons
accountant, Arthur Andersen, collapsed for greed and fraud
as it was charged with obstruction of justice in connection
to the Enron probe (Reuters June 27, 2002; The Observer (UK),
June 9, 2002). These are tip of the iceberg!
Yet,
analysts tend to believe that developed countries are less
corruption than developing nations. One of them points out
that 'throughout the fabric of public life in newly Independent
Stateruns the scarlet thread of bribery and corruption' (Wraith
and Simpkins 1963). Another writer notes that it will probably
be "difficult to secure [by honest means] a visa to a
developing country that would be the subject of a corruption
study (Nye 1967).
Why
is corruption a viable enterprise in the Third World, nay,
Nigeria? The causes of corruption are myriad; and they have
political and cultural variables. Some evidence points to
a link between corruption and social diversity, ethno-linguistic
fractionalization, and the proportions of countrys population
adhering to different religious traditions (Lipset and Lenz,
2000). And studies note also that corruption is widespread
in most non-democratic countries, and particularly, in countries
that have been branded neo-patrimonial, kleptocratic and prebendal
(NORAD 2000). Thus, the political system and the culture of
a society could make the citizens more prone to corrupt activities.
However, we shall focus on the fundamental factors that engender
corrupt practices in less developed nations, including Nigeria.
Some of the factors include:
1)
Great inequality in distribution of wealth;
2)
Political office as the primary means of gaining access to
wealth;
3)
Conflict between changing moral codes;
4)
The weakness of social and governmental enforcement mechanisms;
and
5)
The absence of a strong sense of national community (Bryce,
1921).
The
causes of corruption in Nigeria cannot deviate significantly,
if at all, from the above factors. However, obsession with
materialism, compulsion for a shortcut to affluence, glorification
and approbation [of ill-gotten wealth] by the general public,
are among the reasons for the persistence of corruption in
Nigeria (Ndiulor, March 17, 1999). It has been noted that
one of the popular, but unfortunate indices of good life in
Nigeria, is flamboyant affluence and conspicuous consumption.
Because of this, some people get into dubious activities,
including 'committing ritual murder for money-making.' The
cases of ritual murder abound in Nigeria, but a few examples
will suffice. A middle-aged woman and an SSS3 female student
were reportedly beheaded in Akure, the Ondo State capital
recently (ThisDay News, July 7, 2002). Another case was that
of the 1996 Clement Duru (alias 'Otokoto') ritual killing
episode at Owerri in Imo State. A well-known proprietor of
'Otokoto' hotel, Clement Duru was reported to have been killing
and selling the body parts of some of the travelers that checked
into his hotel at Owerri. And recently, another incident of
ritual killing was reported in the area (see Ogugbuaja, The
Guardian, May 16, 2002).
The
lack of ethical standards throughout the agencies of government
and business organizations in Nigeria is a serious drawback.
According to Bowman, ethics is action, the way we practice
our values; it is a guidance system to be used in making decisions.
The issue of ethics in public sector [and in private life]
encompasses a broad range, including a stress on obedience
to authority, on the necessity of logic in moral reasoning,
and on the necessity of putting moral judgement into practice
(Bowman 1991). Unfortunately, many officeholders in Nigeria
(appointed or elected) do not unfortunately, have clear conceptions
of the ethical demands of their position. Even as corrupt
practices are going off the roof, little attention, if any,
is being given to this ideal.
Other
factors are poor reward system and greed; Nigerias reward
system is, perhaps, the poorest in the world. Nigeria is a
society where national priorities are turned upside down;
hard work is not rewarded, but rogues are often glorified
in Nigeria. As Authur Schlesinger said of America in the 60s,
Our [the] trouble [with Nigeria] is not that our capabilities
are inadequate. It is that our priorities - which means our
values are wrong (Howard (ed.) 1982). And peer community and
extended family pressures, and polygamous household are other
reasons (Onalaja & Onalaja, 1997). The influence of extended
family system and pressure to meet family obligations are
more in less developed societies. Lawrence Harrison acknowledged
that the extended family system is an effective institution
for survival, but notes that it posses a big obstacle for
development (1985, p.7).
According
to Edward Lotterman, bad rules and ineffective taxing system,
which makes it difficult to track down peoples financial activities,
breed corruption (Pioneer Press, April 25, 2002). Ineffective
taxing system is a serious problem for Nigeria. The society
should institute appropriate and effective taxing system where
everyone is made to explain his or her sources of income,
through end-of-the-year income tax filing. The recent ban
on importation of Tokumbo (used car) over five years of manufacture,
is in our opinion, an example of a bad policy that could breed
corruption. If this anti-business ban is not reviewed or discarded
completely, it will, as many critics have noted affect the
economy, as those making a living in the business will be
exposed to poverty, and subsequently, corruption. Businessmen
would be forced to bribe the corrupt custom officials (to
allow the cars in), causing the state to lose the needed tax
revenue. In addition, the policy will divert business to other
neighboring countries (The Vanguard, June 4, 2002). To tame
corruption, the society should try to get rid of regulations
that serve little or no purposes.
The
lukewarm attitude of those who are supposed to enforce the
laws of the land (judges, police officers and public officials)
could lead to people engaging in corrupt behavior, knowing
fully well that they would get away with it. Some cultural
and institutional factors lead to corruption. For instance,
Nepotism and the strength of family values are linked to the
feeling of obligation. The work of Robert K. Merton has demonstrated
the relationship between culture and corruption (1968). His
means-ends schema implies that corruption is at times a motivated
behavior responding to social pressures to violate the norms,
so as to meet the set goals and objectives of a social system.
Lipset
and Lenze note that those going through corrupt means (through
the back door, so to say), to achieve their objectives have
little or no access to opportunity structure. The hindrance
to economic opportunity, according to the study, could be
a result of their race, ethnicity, lack of skills, capital,
material and other human resources. They note that cultures
that stress economic success as an important goal but nevertheless
strongly restricts access to opportunities will have higher
levels of corruption (2000, pp. 112-117). This probably explains
the high incidence of corrupt behaviors in Nigeria. Many Nigerians
are highly achievement oriented, but they have relatively
low access to economic opportunities. For example many civil
servants work for months without getting paid (ThisDay, July
7, 2002; Daily Trust, July 9, 2002). Yet, the society expects
them to be honest and productive. Many of those civil servants
working without pay are parents, who are expected to train
their children in schools with empty wallet. How can they
do that? Are they magicians? No! Under this condition, many
citizens would reject the rule of the game (societal norms)
and criminally innovate to make ends meet.
The
brazen display of wealth by public officials, which they are
unable to explain the source, points to how bad corruption
has reached in the society. Many of these officials before
being elected or appointed into offices had little or modest
income. But now, they are owners of many properties around
the world (ThisDay Online, June 24, 2002). In contrast with
the United States, many of the elected officials are known
to be modest in living (There are some bad eggs in their midst,
but they face the laws when they are found wanting). The 2000
financial disclosure forms released in 2001, which is required
annually for all 535 members of Congress (House and Senate
members), show that many of them live relatively modest. (The
financial forms show sources of outside income, assets, liabilities,
speech honoraria donated to charity and travel paid by private
interests; by law, honoraria are donated to charity). The
main asset of the Senate Majority Leader, Tom Daschle (the
nations highest-ranking Democrat, with direct influence over
billions of federal dollars), is a one-half share in a house
in Aberdeen, South Dakota, given by his mother and worth between
$50,000 and $100,000 in income (CNN News, June 14, 2001).
If he were a Nigerian, he could have owned many million-dollar
homes in beautiful areas in London and the United States (all
over Nigeria too), and decorated himself with countless traditional
titles.
The
work of Edward Banfield shows a relationship corruption and
strong family orientation. The study, which helped to explain
high levels of corruption in southern Italy and Sicily, notes
that corruption is linked to the strong family values involving
intense feelings of obligation. That was the case with the
Mafia in Italy where some people were seen to have the attitude
of anything goes that advances the interests of ones self
and family (1958). All these, including bad practices of non-payment
or late payment of workers, bad business culture of delays
and refusal, or late payment for services executed by business
establishments in Nigeria are forms of corruption. These kinds
of behaviors have the tendency to scare away foreign and local
investors, with tremendous negative effects on the economy
(Daily Trust, July 9, 2002).
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